[PS3KA]
Testing , testing , testing . Alright okay .
WMN: HYP_51
Dialogue: HYP
[PS3KB]
What did , what did anybody do ? Did you do the migration ?
[PS3KC]
No
[PS3KB]
[UNCLEAR]
[PS3KA]
I think the mi yes , no one did the migration one apart from the Dean , he did a famine , er essay . Well I think what we 'll have a look at is this er , mi migration essay . Erm , what I 'll also do , we 'll only sort of talk for about twenty five minutes , about the essay , and then we 'll look at sh writing short answers er , for the exam ,
[PS3KB]
Erm , sorry , when are we having a tutorial next term ?
[PS3KA]
Erm , I do n't think we will be .
[PS3KB]
We wo n't .
[PS3KA]
I think this is our last tutorial for this semester
[PS3KB]
Right .
[PS3KA]
for development or integrational trade . You may well have an ex erm ,
[PS3KB]
One with another one .
[PS3KA]
a tutorial with you know , somebody else for health or banking or you know , whatever .
[PS3KC]
Yes , cos if you think about it , we 've had two banking , we 've had two everything .
[PS3KB]
Two , we have n't had two banking have we ?
[PS3KC]
We 've got two of everything or we 've got two of everything to come .
[PS3KB]
We 've got two management . So that means that , okay , supposing we have a tutorial , does that mean we have n't got anything next term until the exams start ?
[PS3KA]
Mhm .
[HYPPSUNK]
[UNCLEAR]
[HYPPSUNK]
[PS3KD]
Some lecturers , perhaps have some lectures , you know for
[PS3KA]
You may , you may have lec the lectures are supposed to finish at the end of this term , but if , you know , a lecturer has been ill or has n't managed to get through the stuff erm , you may have some lectures next term , but er
[PS3KD]
They said that at , someone from third year last year er , she said that Professor [ANONYMIZATION] is having an extra lecture you know , telling what 's on the exam those things .
[PS3KA]
Well , if he tells you , he 's er , he 's in the min minority . Er , he may , he may be , you 'll have to , to ask him , but generally speaking he does have er
[PS3KD]
[UNCLEAR]
[PS3KA]
Yes , yes .
[PS3KB]
You 'd think he 'd er , target to finish early this term .
[PS3KC]
Yes , well , we 'll just ask you to lecture us
[PS3KA]
Yes , yes , that 's right , I mean he should , you know , the lecturer should say this is the last lecture of term . The last lecture of the semester . Now , what they try and do is finish at the end of this term , so you 've got from now on until , mid- January to , to revise erm , but you may have
[PS3KC]
Or if you do
[PS3KA]
you may , you may , you may have the er , er , you may have some lectures , and possibly some tutorials next term , although I doubt it . It just depends on how behind people are . Okay . Erm , so the title of er , this migration essay , is something I , what are the factors , erm , so in your opinion , no , not the right one ,
[PS3KC]
I 've got it here
[PS3KA]
Can somebody , can someone
[PS3KC]
what factors influence rural urb urban migration decisions in L D Cs , and how can they effect the level of unemployment ?
[PS3KA]
Ah , right , okay , so what factors influence rural urban migration , er , in L D Cs and how can these affect the level of urban unemployment ? Okay . So , what factors do influence migration in developing countries ? We took , categorize into economic and non-economic ? It does seem a sensible way to approach things , possibly . What er , what sort of factors are important ?
[PS3KC]
[UNCLEAR] , differences of income .
[PS3KE]
Differences of income .
[PS3KA]
Okay , income differentials , yes , so presumably the larger the differential between urban and rural wages , the er , the more , or the greater the incentive .
[PS3KC]
Education .
[PS3KA]
Why , why education , I mean
[PS3KC]
Because , erm , the greater the education , er , supposedly increases your chance of getting a job , opens up more opportunities up for you , so erm , you know , if there 's only a certain number of jobs , the one with the most education is more likely to get it .
[PS3KA]
Okay .
[PS3KC]
Erm , and all
[PS3KA]
Wait , wait a second , can we leave education . What about you know , if , if someone is relatively well educated , and they come from an urban , urban rural area , why do n't they get a job in the rural area using those qualifications ?
[PS3KB]
Cos there is n't any .
[PS3KA]
Right okay , that 's the er , that 's the er long and short of it , by and large , there , there is n't erm , employment , er , there are very few erm , administrative type , type jobs .
[PS3KC]
Also to add to that is that erm , we know that a great of , basically agriculture 's sort of under-employed , there 's a lot of under-employment in agriculture . And erm , so , the , there 's more opportunity to actually improve your situation by being in an urban area , erm , by migrating even internationally to improve your situation . Basically people are maximizing their situations in agriculture . They 're born into maximum situations .
[PS3KA]
Right so they 're
[PS3KC]
In the majority of cases , I would say there 's probably a few there .
[PS3KA]
okay , so the , there , what you 're saying is that the , the rural wage is a sub a subsistence wage , which is im by definition , sort the minimum wage you require to live on and er , there are possibilities of much higher incomes else elsewhere , so the , the subsistence wage itself may well act as quite er , strong sort of push factor out of the rural areas , let alone erm , high wages in er , er , the urban areas .
[PS3KC]
Cost of migration .
[PS3KA]
Okay , what 's , what do you mean by that ?
[PS3KC]
Well , erm , there is a cost involved in moving from , physically moving from one to the other , and also when you have to weigh up er , costs of moving your family or the risks involved and things like that , so that 's all involved in that . Erm , and for some people , well for the whole of the rural economy , it 's harder to , or they 're in a , a lesser income situation , and it 's also availability of credit , or access to funds is much , you know , people have less savings , and so forth , because they do n't save . They employ it , and put it back into the land , if they do make anything .
[PS3KA]
Okay .
[PS3KC]
So , so , you know , for a lot of , I would n't say a lot , but there is a , a group in the population that are basically concerned with just surviving in agriculture , and would n't even consider , even if they are , say have got a high IQ or something , they just physically ca n't migrate because of the cost .
[PS3KA]
Okay , yes , that 's fine . True . Did , anything else ? Do they automatically get jobs if they move ?
[PS3KB]
Nope .
[PS3KA]
Okay , so the probability of getting a job is going to be quite important .
[PS3KC]
Erm , the amount of information available determines , on the probability of thereby you can reverse it round , and say the amount of unemployment . So like we know , we can , we see on television , the rates of unemployment say in France and Germany , and so forth , so that influences our decision to up say to Liverpool or Edinburgh somewhere , and influences our decision to migrate . Now , it 's a bit different , because normally we apply to a job in Glasgow , we might get it or we might not , but , you look at , we 've got more of , of information , but , in less developed countries , that information is , even if it were collected , sometimes it 's not even collected , erm , it 's not widely available , so people 's perceptions or hearsay from people who 've gone before , is the information , and that 's often erm , wrong . And even if it was close to being right , say the unemployment is say , twenty percent , it does n't account for like under-employment in the , in the informal sector and things like that
[PS3KA]
So is , is lack of information , or lack of relevant information , is that why we get this apparent paradox of erm , people migrating from rural to urban areas , despite there is in actual fact , twenty or thirty percent unemployment in the urban areas , and the migrants have very little chance of ever getting a job ? Is that is that a reason ?
[PS3KC]
Yes .
[PS3KA]
Yes , does that carry much weight do you think ?
[PS3KC]
Do n't know .
[PS3KA]
Well there 's one school of thought , says yes , that is why we get this apparent paradox of people migrating , right , when we actually have very high unemployment . You know , what are you migrating for ? Well it 's to get a job , to improve your living standards . Alright , and perhaps the reason why people are migrating when there is very high unemployment is because they do n't realize that there is such high unemployment . But that sort of view has been , has been challenged in more , in more recent years with empirical studies saying erm , er , sort of rural labour forces is quite likely to migrate , or some parts of the rural labour force are quite likely to migrate right , and it is rational to migrate , even in the presence of very high unemployment .
[PS3KC]
But , the , what are they measuring ? How is unemployment measured , they 're measuring it in the formal sector , and you can actually live by being employed in the informal sector , which is often not recorded .
[PS3KA]
Okay .
[PS3KC]
So , so , I believe it 's alright to say well people will migrate in the presence of , it 's rational for a person to migrate in the presence of , of high unemployment if high unemployment only refers to the formal sector , but it 's not rational if it implies that it refers to informal and formal .
[PS3KA]
Well could it be , well , it still could be ?
[PS3KB]
Can I just ask a question ?
[PS3KA]
Mm .
[PS3KB]
Right , you said that the reason is , there 's lack of information so , that 's why people migrate , because they do n't realize they 're not going to get a job . And the counter-arguments to this is that there is n't lack of information , people know they 're not going to get a job , but they 're still better off to move , so that 's a rubbish theory . Is that what you 're saying ?
[PS3KA]
Mm , that 's right , I mean that 's what , sort of people like Harrison [ANONYMIZATION] sort of were saying , is that , it , it 's still rational to move , even in the presence of very high , very high unemployment . Okay .
[HYPPSUNK]
Why ?
[PS3KA]
Why , why is that the case , well , tell me , why might people , why might you move to a , if you were a rural labourer , why might you move to erm , to an urban area where you knew there were some jobs ?
[PS3KB]
Because they 're most likely to get social support if anybody 's going get anything .
[PS3KA]
How , how do you mean Nadine ?
[PS3KB]
Well if , if they start introducing measures to help the people out who are , if you 're in an urban area like in a slum , they 're more likely to help those people first . Be it
[PS3KA]
I do n't , I do n't know
[HYPPSUNK]
[PS3KC]
be it , the expected
[PS3KA]
interesting theory .
[PS3KC]
[ANONYMIZATION] is about the expected wage , and he says that people erm , base their decision , a rational mind would base his decision on erm , probability of getting a job times the erm , urban wage rate , equals the expected rate , wage rate , and he 's saying that , because urban wage rates are so much higher , erm , that unemployment rate can also be quite high , and the expected gains can still be positive .
[PS3KA]
Mm , that 's right , because what 's , what are Harrison 's [ANONYMIZATION] doing ? They 're summing expected income over all future periods
[PS3KC]
They 're , yes , they 're , they 're making a present value of
[PS3KA]
Mm , so they 're , you 're doing a present value expression . So although erm , current rates of unemployment are very high , you may be prepared to erm , to , to accept unemployment in the short term , you know , because a year down the line , you may well be able to get employment . You know , if , particularly so , if you 're only on a subsistence wage in the first place . You know , if not , you know , if you 're very , very poor in a , in a rural area , you may think , well look , there 's , there 's this chance , no matter how , how slim of me getting a , sort of proper job in the urban area , thus you may well take that chance . You could , you may , what you may feel confident in er , your employment prospects , you know , if you 're the , the most able in the village or , you know , in your little sort of , social environment
[PS3KC]
Tribe .
[PS3KA]
Tribe , or whatever . You know , you may , you may be the best , and therefore think , think you have a , or have a high opinion of yourself , and therefore try your luck , you know , if somebody must be getting those jobs it could be me . Erm , rather than , so people may , may make rational decisions and this is what Harrison [ANONYMIZATION] were taking about is that , erm , it still may be rational to move , even though there 's very high unemployment , alright , simply because people may accept a period of erm , of unemployment if it means that they , in the long run , obtain a , a relatively high paid job . Erm , we can do a little design round here . Time on this axis , and wages rates , rural wage or against urban wages . Now this is saying that that 's the wage rate in er in a rural centre . So if we just add up over sort of the time horizon of this person , this person 's life , right , his expected wage in agriculture , right , it 's going to be this , this , this area here . Alright , if erm , if we now so this is going to be his sort of , his opportunity cost right , his wage rate in the rural sense is going to , to opportunity cost , and the sum of the opportunity cost over time right , is going to be the present , you know if we discount that by some er , if we turn it into a present , a present value , right , the present value of that sum there , right , will determine life times income in agriculture . Right if we oh , ah right , let's not discount it , right , now let's just explain this again . This is the wage rate in agriculture , right , now if we discount , sorry I 've made a cock-up of this , that 's erm , that 's not discounted , right , if we discounted , it 's going to look
[PS3KB]
Why just discount it and then ?
[PS3KA]
Well it 's just that , you know , a pound , or a hundred pounds today , is not the same as a hundred pounds in a year 's time , or two , two years ' time . Right .
[HYPPSUNK]
So that would be opportunity cost ?
[PS3KA]
That 's right , yes , that 's right , so , in actual fact , this area here , right , is going to be the discounted sum of all future rural incomes . Alright , now if we look at the , the rural instead of the urban wage rate , right , up here alright , now let's just say that it takes that amount of time before this individual gets a job in the urban area , alright , now if we discount alright the erm , the rural , the urban wages right , that 's all this
[PS3KB]
Why have you just discounted it to there ?
[PS3KA]
Sorry ?
[PS3KB]
Why have you discounted it to W R ?
[PS3KA]
Well it 's , well , er , there 's no need why that should be the case , it could be , you know , it could look something like that . But , up in the , there the migrant 's decision making process will be , is this area here right , is that area there , greater than that area there . Alright , so this is the discounted sum in er , in non-agriculture , in the urban area , and this is the value , the discounted sum in agriculture . Now , clearly on the , on the way I 've drawn this diagram it is . Right , but that 's going to depend on right , not only the wage differential , now if the wage differential is very large it 's likely that this discounted sum is going to , you know , be larger than that . But it also depends on the time it takes to get the job . I mean if we got a job somewhere out here then it clearly would n't be . So it 's this , it 's the time taken to get this erm , er , to get the job 's going to be important . Now if we think of W U as being er , the expected value of the urban wage , and that equals the probability of getting a job , multiplied by the actual urban wages , alright then this probability of getting a job is going to be important as well . And that 's it then , scruffy diagram , but what more have we got ? An urban wage , a rural wage , right , we discount those wages over time , right and that area there , shading the area in the blue sort of box , then this it 's erm , it 's going to be rational for this er , migrant , this person to become a migrant . Even though , I mean this does n't say anything about unemployment levels , levels of unemployment . Unem the level of unemployment is subsumed between , well , within the time it takes to get a job , and also the probability of , of getting a job . Alright . So this sort of , even that 's just what [UNCLEAR] the Harrison [ANONYMIZATION] model erm , tells us , right , so that 's , unemployment rates are , are virtually erm , unimportant in the migrant 's decision . Unemployment rates now , it 's because they may well be , if they 're acting rationally , discount over a very large , long period of time . Okay just er , just to ask , is this erm , migration , it , does it cause a problem ? I mean I thought that migration was the er , would be the cure of all ills , in that , you know , we 've got wage differentials here in this , in this hypothetical economy . Surely if you migrate that increases the supply of labour , it reduces the supply of labour in the rural sector , it increases the supply of labour in er , the urban sector , unless wage , wage rates should equalize ?
[HYPPSUNK]
No .
[PS3KA]
What , what , why do n't , why does n't , why do n't wage rates equalize ?
[PS3KC]
Because erm , the urban sector is normally considered to be capital intensive a sector , and the rural area in L D Cs are considered more labour intensive , and so erm , obviously when you get an influx of labour , and changes to the capital to labour ratio
[PS3KA]
Mhm
[PS3KC]
erm , and you would see er , a shift in capital to , to agriculture as the return on capital in urban falls ,
[PS3KA]
mhm
[PS3KC]
and this would , you would think , because there 's a shift back of capital to agriculture you 'd get a rise in agricultural wage rates because that changes the capital to labour ratio again and so this would counteract the movement . However , there is a problem , capital is not perfectly mobile , like you can apply a new machine into , well maybe you could cos that 's [UNCLEAR] . Whatever , you ca n't apply the urban type of capital back onto the land , so it 's okay to say this would work if capital was completely and perfectly mobile , but it is n't so , you do n't get that and you do n't get balanced growth of that . Because er , everything shifts in the wrong direction .
[PS3KA]
That 's right , I mean , in order to eq equalize wages between sector , labour and also capital has to be perfectly mobile . Now , if it 's not , we know that labour is n't , is n't perfectly mobile , it appeared , migration would seem to suggest it 's , it 's pretty mobile geographically , but it may not be particularly mobile occupationally . So that these people go to the urban areas to get the jobs , they 're not trained erm , for these jobs right and as a result , these wages rates still , may still be maintained despite the fact there are lots of people who are quite happy to take wages erm , in , take up jobs in the urban sectors , it 's the fact that sort of , employers do n't want them , because they do n't have the requisite skills . Also , where , what are the erm , what 're the highest paid jobs in the urban sector ? They are essentially in developing countries . They are essentially government jobs . Right . Now , er , without wishing to generalize too much , bribery , corruption , you know , it 's not what you know , it 's who you know , are very important factors in er , in employment in developing countries . And as a result they are
[PS3KC]
It 's much nicer to say patronage , you promise to say patronage .
[PS3KA]
Ah , patronage , okay , that 's er , a nice euphemism to see the
[PS3KC]
Then you do n't like slander people .
[PS3KA]
That 's right , in that erm , you 're , the probability of you getting a well paid job is greatly enhanced , if not guaranteed if you know er , the people who are employing you . And this sort of thing goes , is , is rife in developing countries . I mean the old boy network is pretty bad in this country , but er , it 's similar sorts of things go on in developing countries , and because there 's much less of an industrial sector there , the government sector itself , erm , plays a very important role in , in employment . Now , was it you Lyn who had some statistics some saying er , what proportion
[PS3KC]
Fine I 've got , I 've got to use stat statistics to [UNCLEAR]
[PS3KA]
Well it works , erm , there were some
[PS3KB]
Yes .
[PS3KA]
I ca n't remember if it was you or somebody else , had er , some data as to how many of the er , jobs in urban areas where the government
[PS3KC]
I put erm , studies by Helen and Tate , nineteen eighty three , found public sector employment averaged forty four percent of non-agricultural employment in twenty L D Cs and in extreme cases were Tanzania and Zambia , were as high as seventy eight and eighty one percent respectively . And I think he quote those , or they did n't quote them in much , as much detail as I did in the lectures . I 'd got these figures down , but I had n't really got anything against them , he just quickly went through the percentages so yes .
[PS3KA]
Okay , so
[PS3KC]
And developed countries averaged twenty four percent , so it 's twice as much as developed countries .
[PS3KA]
Right , so given sort of erm , public and semi-public institutions , right , represent a large proportion of the non- agricultural erm , employment opportunities , and as a result , alright , the rates of pay in the , in the civil service , essentially , are going to , going to determine erm , the urban , the urban wage rate . Now if those , erm , wages in the civil service are set , not through sort of market process , but sort of through institutional er , constraints , you know , it 's unlikely there 's going to be sort of er , union power erm , in these sorts of jobs , but nevertheless , civil servants tend to do quite well at giving themselves pay increases
[PS3KC]
[UNCLEAR] Conservative government .
[PS3KA]
and er , and as a result , you know , institutes , the wages in government bodies tend to be quite high , and because gov government bodies represent such a large proportion of er , non- agricultural employment they , they represent a much more sort of , a much more potent influence than they would do in a , in a developed country where the government sector is much , much smaller . Erm okay what was the importance of implication of er , Harrison [ANONYMIZATION] model ? There was one policy implication .
[PS3KC]
That , what was it , that erm people still move . Obviously , we that right , people will still move if unemployment 's high , but if you try , if the government tries and gets rid of unem urban unemployment , say people have moved because of it , so there 's unemployment there to start with because of the reasons we 've discussed earlier , so then the government said okay , well let's get rid of the unemployment that has occurred already , by erm , either , at the same wage rate trying to well yes , the same , they 'll keep wage rates the same , but erm , increase , you know , make the public sector bigger or , or do something to create urban jobs , and basically all it will do is , encourage more migrants because they 'll see the probability of getting a job will increase so the expected wage will increase so you 'll get migration on top of what 's already occurring . And , erm , you wo n't solve anything .
[PS3KA]
That 's right , so , if you want to try and erm , minimize urban unemployment , right , or it 's futile to try and minimize urban unemployment by erm , er , establishing employment er , job creation schemes in urban areas , because that will increase the probability of getting a job if you 're a migrant . Right , so there are these government job creation schemes , alright . Now , because it 's typically observed in the Harrison [ANONYMIZATION] model shows this under certain circumstances to be the case , that , erm , a sort of erm , migration elasticity with respect to income differentials , right , is much greater than the erm ,
[PS3KC]
The rate of unemployment , the level of unemployment
[PS3KA]
That 's right , yes , yes , that 's right , because erm , there 's a gre there 's a higher elasticity of migration inelasticity in respect to income differentials than there is to unemployment , any job creation schemes will lead to more migration , rather than , rather than less , so how , how best to get round the problem ? If job creation schemes are n't in urban areas , are the best way to get round them , is n't it , if we can show , quite simply , that job creation schemes lead to more migration , which lead to more unemployment . The policy 's self repeating , what policies might [UNCLEAR] ?
[PS3KE]
A policy of cross-training , [UNCLEAR] for all areas .
[PS3KA]
Okay , yeah , so , what might those , what form might those policies take , what might they be ?
[PS3KC]
[UNCLEAR] on it .
[PS3KA]
Yes , population controls , that 's right , that 's one , I mean , one reason , one way of getting rid of the migration is to , is to , is to limit population growth . Where 's the population growth highest ? It 's at its highest in rural areas , this is what 's being done . Erm , population control is always focused out in the rural areas , [UNCLEAR] the most difficult place to do it , because populations are dispersed , er , that 's where population growth , right , is the highest . Any other ?
[PS3KC]
Making incentives to actually raise the wage rates in the , in the rural areas so , sort of to , to increase production or , and through , through farming . To improve their situation ,
[PS3KA]
Right , yeah
[PS3KC]
improve their wages through farming and perhaps
[PS3KA]
That 's right ,
[PS3KC]
put more infrastructure in so that then the farmers can send their children to school rather than work on the land .
[PS3KA]
yeah , that 's right , what we want to try and do is to improve the erm , the returns to , to agriculture which is the main form of er , sort of income in rural areas . I mean if you do things like that while improving infrastructure , erm , setting up credit , government credit facilities , er , so , so , so we can lend , we could lend money to small farms . Increase in information about unem unemployment itself , that is a , that is a problem , people have this misapprehensions about the probability of getting a job
[PS3KC]
You could also erm , start to recognize the benefit of the rural sector , and one reason why they were discriminating , L D Cs tended to want to ignore that and sort of shun it , because it 's not sort of a glamorous image they were trying to hope for in the urban sector , and , so , if they did help them , say give them units , like the repair men , units to work in , and they put them in really totally crappy accommodation , and up not where you need it , and not where people pass by with their motors and things , they , they 'd put them somewhere up on a hill , overlooking a city , so erm , to encourage the informal sector by erm , sort of on a par with the formal sector because erm , their inter- reacting , inter-relating now , like they 're providing cheap inputs for the formal industries and , and the formal industries are pro providing clientele all for the informal sector , and so it 's all inter-linked and , and it 's there now . It 's not going to disappear , cos it 's quite a large part of urban areas . They could do that .
[PS3KA]
Yes , we want to try and improve resource allocation in the economy and one way of doing that is not necessarily subsidizing agricultural production , but remove the taxes on agricultural growth . Alright , and effectively what 's , what 's happening is that the government sectors in erm , in developing countries are very highly subsidized . Right , they 're overmanned , alright , they have very high wages , alright , er , that is one of the major courses of er , causes of resource mis-allocation , it 's this very large , very inefficient government sector . And er , one way to , to get people to stay on the land is to introduce some sort of , what we might call market disciplines , if that was n't such a dirty word , er , into the government , the government sector where there are clear inefficiencies . Okay , right , erm it 's nearly time to go , but before we do , can I just give you some bits and pieces , you , you may well have copies of last year 's exam paper , but if you have n't , this is for development and integration of trade er , have a look at those sorts of essays you 're being asked to do . But also , look as those er , those short answers , now it 's important that you answer the short answer questions well alright , because it 's , it 's a lot easier to get good marks on a short answer question , providing you do it well , than it is on a long answer question . Alright , erm , but most people do n't , do n't ans do n't answer short answer questions very well at all , and that 's why they get low , low marks for them . Always re bear in mind , that whenever you do a short answer question , right , you 've only got fifteen minutes to do it in . Right , there , there is n't a great deal that you can get in , in fifteen minutes . But what , what you must have , right , is a definition of erm , the er , sort of thing that you 're asked to write about . I mean , factor price equalization , intra-industry measuring intra-industry trade , optimal intervention , reciprocal dumping , they 're all jargon , bits of jargon effect effectively , so you must , you must have a definition . Right now , although the determinals in industrial specialization within countries , alright , now although you ca n't really define that , you might be able to say something about industrial specialization . You know it 's fairly obvious what it is , but with most of these will , will require , require a definition . Right , so you must put a definition , a definition in there . An example of it in use , and you must have ex what I 'm saying , it 's very important to have empirical erm , examples in your essays , right , because they will also be required in the short answer questions as well . Right , you know , what is an example of erm , reciprocal dumping ? Right now you may , erm , [UNCLEAR] do n't know anything in particular , but I know that the European Community and the United , United States are always trying to out , erm , beat each other in terms of subsidies on food products , so put , put that in . Reciprocal dumping , erm , you know , one very good example would be agricultural trade between European Community and erm , and America . Alright , if it 's a , so you , you 've got to have a definition , alright , you must have a , an example of it in , in action . Any form of empirical evidence is useful , alright , erm sometimes you know , you 're asked , you know , what is the effective protection , or define , or write brief a brief essay on effective protection , right you 'll , you 'll want to say something there about how it 's measured . Now what essentially , what you 're doing , is that you 're writing an essay in very , very condensed form , so it 's just , I mean you still , still must have the same recipe in there when you write a short answer , right , but you just have to be very , very brief , so you know , para paragraph on definition , you know , paragraph of examples , right , erm , paragraph on some sort of explanation or erm , how it 's , how it 's measured erm , has it been a contentious issue erm , what are the problems with this er , with this concept erm , right , you 've got to get those sort of things in there , like you would in an essay , if you were asked to write an essay on reciprocal dumping you 'd , you 'd have all those things in there , right , but you only need to write a sentence , a sentence about them . You know , nobody 's expecting three or four sides , right , you 've got quarter of an hour , not erm , you know , if , if you can write a side a half you , you 'll be doing much better than most people , alright , so you 're just thinking about a side really , depending on how big your handwriting is . But you must have , you know , do n't ramble on about the same thing , right , cos , for , for , for any more than a couple of sentences , cos then , you know , you c start entering into sort of diminishing marginal returns very , very quickly on these short answer questions , what you want to , do is sort of say a sentence about as much as you can rather than go into in depth discussion about erm , any particular aspect . Alright , so it 's a bit of er , a sort of blunderbuss type of approach that you 've got , that you 've got to use . Get a definition in , get an application in , get empirical evidence in , get measurement problems in erm , get sort of contentious issues type of , or criticisms in erm , do n't draw , do n't do diagrams as they 're probably , the only , the only principal difference between this and an essay , you just have n't got the time , right , so do n't be tempted , unless you can do a very quick diagram that sum , sums it up . Alright , I do n't recommend doing diagrams cos you spend five , five ten minutes drawing the diagram and explaining you know , what the curves are on it , erm , so you do n't really need to draw , draw diagrams in these short answer questions . Again that 's only a general principle . Occasionally you might be , but erm , if I can , if you look at er , the erm , the European Community 's erm , short answers , right , they 've actually given you an except there , a dia diagram , right . Question , question one , [UNCLEAR] question two , alright . It 's a pretty complicated diagram , I would n't expect you to draw that in fifteen minutes , and explain the , the
[PS3KB]
If they give you a diagram like that , can you just talk about the lines , you do n't have to say what they are ?
[PS3KA]
No , that 's right , yes .
[PS3KC]
Basically , you could say like with gains or something , gains are A , B , C.
[PS3KB]
Yes
[PS3KA]
That 's right ,
[PS3KC]
I reckon that 's , that 's the way that
[PS3KB]
it will be assu it will be assumed that , yes
[PS3KC]
everything on there is known about that , just specific areas .
[PS3KA]
Alright , but you know , you 've got so little time , you know , fifteen minutes is very , very short period of time , so whatever you say
[PS3KC]
Not wanting to induce panicking .
[PS3KA]
What I do recommend you do is er , you know , use these short answers in your , in your revision , and sort of , you know , revise on say interim district trade , and then just write a question in fifteen minutes , and you realize that you ca n't really write very much , and it 's good discipline , because once you 've made the mistake , you know , of writing , you know , two paragraphs on some aspect of it , you realize you have n't got any time to , to do anything else . You wo n't , hopefully you wo n't make that mistake again , so , short , sweet , crisp answers to these erm , these short answer questions . Do n't bother doing diagrams , get a sentence in on everything you know , right although it 's not
[PS3KC]
[UNCLEAR]
[PS3KA]
Well , that does n't sound very sophisticated to say , these are the questions when you just write everything you know about a particular issue .
[PS3KB]
But they are , you do straight out what you can think up about it .
[PS3KA]
Yes , that 's essentially , essentially it .
[PS3KB]
Apart from the essays
[PS3KC]
[UNCLEAR] write anyway for thirty minutes
[PS3KA]
Not quite the same approach there , but I mean , it 's not , not everything you know , but write something about everything you know about
[PS3KB]
Alright
[PS3KA]
the short answers . A , a sentence on everything you can , think of that , that relates to it , but if you do , [UNCLEAR] do practise them , it 's only just to , to talk about it , it 's difficult to know what you can write in fifteen minutes . Right , I 'm here vir virtually throughout the vacation , erm , I 'll be here until the beginning of next term , so if you are having problems of any sort , or want me to run through something with you , just er , feel free to disturb me .
[HYPPSUNK]
Sorry , sorry
[PS3KA]
It 's alright , so come along and see me , if you have any problems , it 's much better you talk it over with me before the problem gets out of hand . Alright , so , come and see me as soon as the problems start to emerge , and I can probably tell you that you 're , you 're wasting time and energy worrying about it , so
[PS3KC]
[UNCLEAR] we 're going to sit and [UNCLEAR]
[PS3KA]
so , er , come and see me before you know , if you are having any problems , just come along . Okay , do n't forget to have a few days break over Christmas , do n't work all the time , have a jolly good time . See you next year .
[HYPPSUNK]
Yes , bye